One cell of prophase II would contain 16 sister chromatids after telophase I and then a nucleus in telophase II would contain 8 sister chromatids. Finally, the 8 sister chromatids in one cell would be 8 chromosomes in one daughter cell.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium conditions are large population, no gene flow (isolation), no mutation, random mating, and no natural selection.

In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the allele equation is p+q=1. If the frequency of the dominant allele p is 0.6, then the frequency of the recessive allele q is 0.4. In the population equation, p²+2pq+q²=1, the dominant phenotype is p²+2pq or 1-q². Thus, 1-(0.4)²=0.84. The percentage of dominant phenotype is 84%. 

Color blindness is an X-linked recessive trait.The woman has normal vision and her father has color blindness. She will be XX^a as below.

Also, when she has children with a man who has normal vision, the genotypes of the children are as below.

B is the conclusion of the Avery, Macleod, McCarty experiment. C is the conclusion of the Hersh-Chase experiment.

The greater the gap between two linked genes, the greater the probability of crossing over.

The statement of A is for the leading strand. Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand are the opposite direction of elongating new nucleotides against the movement of the replication fork.

Pre-mRNA transcribed from DNA consists of 5′ Cap, exon, intron, and poly-A tail. Pre-mRNA becomes mRNA for codons of amino acids after cutting out introns and splicing exons together. r-RNA is transcribed from DNA.

To produce one amino acid there must be one codon and three nucleotides of DNA. Thus, 360 DNA nucleotides and 12o codons are needed to make 12o amino acids.

Nonsense of mutation is a result of a stop codon by substitution of one nucleotide. Missense is becoming a different amino acid by altering a codon.

The Dideoxy Chain-Termination method is useful for determining the long sequencing DNA rapidly. X-ray diffraction is used for knowing the arrangement of molecular structure. DNA fingerprint is used to identify an individual’s DNA. Gel electrophoresis is used for separating nucleic aids or proteins.

During mitosis chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate. During meiosis I the pairs of homologous chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate.

During S phase this organism forms 16 chromatids and 8 chromosomes with DNA synthesis.

In the Hardy-Weinberg equation, the population equation is p²+2pq+q²=1. Recessive homozygotes population is 100-64-32= 4 and the frequency of recessive homozygotes q² is 4/100 = 0.04. 

The number of heterozygotes is 3, thus 2³=8.

(or AaBBCcDdEE = 2×1×2×2×1=8)

I. Because Hemophilia disease is a sex-linked trait, all male children from a diseased mother and normal father would be abnormal.

II. Color blindness is also a sex-linked trait. The female children from a homozygous normal mother and color blind father will be normal.

III. Sickle cell anemia is an autosomal recessive trait. All male and female children from a diseased mother and homozygous normal father would be normal.

IV. All children from both mother and father who have sickle cell anemia disease are abnormal.

An inactivated X-chromosome called the Barr body is condensed after cell division. The alleles on the inactivated X-chromosome do not show up. The Barr body occurs only in females.

Nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes or chromosomes occurs during each meiosis I and meiosis II. An abnormal number of chromosomes from the nondisjunction is called aneuploidy, monosomic and trisomic. The presence of one chromosome is monosomic (n-1) and the presence of three chromosomes is trisomic (n+1). Monosomic chromosomes cause Turner syndrome (only X chromosome) and trisomic chromosomes cause Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY chromosomes).

In the DNA structure the ratios of A, G, C, and T are A=T and G=C. In Chargaff’s rule the amount between purine and pyrimidine has to be equal: A+G = C+T = 50%.

G=C=26%

C+T=50%, T=50%-26%=24%

Therefore, thymine would be 24%.

snRNP and other proteins combined are called spliceosomes. They remove introns from pre-mRNA and splice exons for codons of mRNA during RNA processing.

Frameshift mutation, missing or insertion of a single nucleotide, changes all codons for the amino acids and causes serious genetic diseases.

During anaphase of mitosis and anaphase II of meiosis the sister chromatids are separated. Pairs of chromosomes are separated during anaphase I of meiosis. Chromosomes are lined up during metaphase of mitosis and metaphase II of meiosis.

During prophase I of meiosis, homologous chromosome pairs are formed and then synapsis and crossing over occur between the homologous chromosomes. These events are the genetic exchange and combination between gametes.

Found effect means that the isolated group from large population loses genetic variation and establishes new population. Bottleneck effect is a drastic reduction in size of population by a sudden disaster. Gene flow means changing alleles of population by movements of individual alleles. Hybridization is breeding different related animals to increase variation. Cline is geographic variation along geographic height.

Having both phenotypes of F1 generation from both parental traits is called codominance. Complete dominance means having one phenotype of F1 generation from both parental traits. Incomplete dominance means having an intermediated phenotype of F1 generation from both parental traits. Epistasis is phenotypic expression by alternation one gene to the second gene. Pleiotrophy means that a single gene affects symptoms of the multiple phenotypic traits.

When a I^BI^O genotyped mother has children with a I^AI^O genotyped father, the genotypes of the children would be I^AI^B, I^AI^O, I^BI^O, and I^OI^O. Therefore, the possible blood types of the children would be AB, A, B, and O.

Translocation: breakage and rearrangement of chromosome. Deletion: lost chromosomal segment. Inversion: reverse attachment of chromosomal segment.

The nuclear envelope disappears during prophase and reappears during telophase.

G2 checkpoint evaluates DNA replication.

Polygenic inheritance means phenotypic expression by quantitative variation of a trait such as skin color. Phenotypic expression of blood type is an example of codominance.

Sex-linked genes such as XY of male chromosomes are called hemizygous. A pair of different and alternative alleles such as Aa or Bb is called heterozygous.

Klinefelter syndrome is the result of nondisjunction of X chromosome and is sterile male with XXY trisomic chromosomes. These people have female body characteristics. Nondisjunction of chromosomes number of 21 is down syndrome.

Primase synthesizes the RNA primer for starting point of DNA synthesis. RNA polymerase synthesizes pre-mRNA.

Correct sequence:

DNA → transcription → RNA → translation → protein → phenotype

When the sequence of t-RNA anticodons is ‘AUA GAU GUA’, the sequence of m-RNA codons is ‘UAC CUA CAU’, and then the sequence of DNA is ‘ATA GAT GTA’.

All are true.

Somatic cells are produced only by mitotic cell division.

F1 generation produced all purple flowers from parental purple and white flowers.

Recessive homozygotes cross with the dominant phenotype of a daughter organism to determine the genotype of the parent organism.

One time duplication: 50% conservation of molecules from parent strands

Two times duplication: 25% conservation of molecules from parent strands

Three times duplication: 12.5 % conservation of molecules from parent strands

Hydrogen bonds are formed between adenine (A) and thymine (T) or G (guanine) and C (cytosine). DNA backbone is composed of carbon sugars and phosphate groups. Molecules containing A and T have a lower melting point than those containing G and C because the two hydrogen bonds between A and T are less than the three hydrogen bonds between G and C.

Peptide bonds are translocated at P site and then tRNA departs at E site.

At the first generation, both parents have no disease but one of children has a disease. This is a recessive trait. At the second generation, the father has no disease but one daughter has the disease. This is an autosomal trait. Thus this pedigree illustrates an autosomal recessive trait.

Wobble is only necessary at the first two codons when tRNA meet with mRNA. Anticodons are triplet nucleotides at the end of tRNA. Stop codons, such as UAA, UAG, and UGA inhibit the synthesis of polypeptide. Start codons, AUG, begin the synthesis of polypeptide. Methyliosine is one of the tRNA bases.